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Conservation of energy requires that the electromagnetic field be nonlinear. The nonlinear nature of the field causes it to exhibit properties now atrtributable to "matter." It follows that elementary particles may be considered to be electromagnetic field patterns. If particles are electromagnitic field patterns, then the forces affecting them are all electromagnetic. The forces discussed are the Lorentz force, gravity and the nuclear or stong force.

It is commonly believed that in viewing very distant astronomical objects we are seeing back in time nearly to the origin of the universe. However, some distant galaxies seem to be more evolved, i.e. older, than would be expected. This paper argues that, if we accept the expanding universe theory, we cannot see so far back in time and therefore distant objects are not seen in their infancies.